Civil War CDV General John C Fremont the Pathfinder

  
John Charles Frémont (January 21, 1813 - July 13, 1890) was an American explorer, military officer, and politician. He was a United States senator from California and was the first Republican nominee for president of the U.

In 1856 and founder of the California Republican Party when he was nominated. He lost the election to Democrat James Buchanan when the vote was split by Know Nothings. Frémont was a native of Georgia and attended the College of Charleston for two years until he was expelled after irregular attendance.

In the 1840s, he led five expeditions into the western states, during which he became one of the first perpetrators of the California genocide of indigenous peoples of California. During the Mexican-American War, he was a major in the U. Army and took control of California from the California Republic in 1846. During this time, he led the Sacramento River massacre, Klamath Lake massacre, and Sutter Buttes massacre against indigenous peoples. Frémont was court-martialed and convicted of mutiny and insubordination after a conflict over who was the rightful military governor of California.

His sentence was commuted and he was reinstated by President James K. Polk, but Frémont resigned from the Army. Gold was found on his Mariposa ranch, and Frémont became a wealthy man during the California Gold Rush.

He became one of the first two U. Senators elected from the new state of California in 1850. At the beginning of the American Civil War in 1861, he was given command of the Department of the West by President Abraham Lincoln. Frémont had successes during his brief tenure there, though he ran his department autocratically and made hasty decisions without consulting President Lincoln or Army headquarters. He issued an unauthorized emancipation edict and was relieved of his command for insubordination by Lincoln. After a brief service tenure in the Mountain Department in 1862, Frémont resided in New York, retiring from the army in 1864. He was nominated for president in 1864 by the Radical Democracy Party, a breakaway faction of abolitionist Republicans, but he withdrew before the election.

After the Civil War, he lost much of his wealth in the unsuccessful Pacific Railroad in 1866, and he lost more in the Panic of 1873. Frémont served as Governor of the Arizona Territory from 1878 to 1881. After his resignation as governor, he retired from politics and died destitute in New York City in 1890. Historians portray Frémont as controversial, impetuous, and contradictory. Some scholars regard him as a military hero of significant accomplishment, while others view him as a failure who repeatedly defeated his own best interests.

The keys to Frémont's character and personality, several historians argue, lie in his having been born "illegitimate" (to unwed parents) and in his drive for success, need for self-justification, and passive-aggressive behavior. [1][2] His biographer Allan Nevins wrote that Frémont lived a dramatic life of remarkable successes and dismal failures. Early life, education, and early career. John Charles Frémont was born on January 21, 1813, the son of Charles Frémon, a French-Canadian immigrant school-teacher, [5][6][a] and Anne Beverley Whiting, the youngest daughter of socially prominent Virginia planter Col. At age 17, Anne married Major John Pryor, a wealthy Richmond resident in his early 60s.

In 1810, Pryor hired Frémon to tutor his young wife Anne. Pryor confronted Anne when he found out she was having an affair with Frémon. Anne and Frémon fled to Williamsburg on July 10, 1811, later settling in Norfolk, Virginia, taking with them household slaves Anne had inherited. [9][7] The couple later settled in Savannah, Georgia, where she gave birth to their son Frémont out of wedlock. [5] Pryor published a divorce petition in the Virginia Patriot and charged that his wife had "for some time past indulged in criminal intercourse". When the Virginia House of Delegates refused the divorce petition, it was impossible for the couple to marry. In Savannah, Anne took in boarders while Frémon taught French and dancing. Their domestic slave, Black Hannah, helped raise young John. Poinsett, a wealthy South Carolinian, was Frémont's patron. On December 8, 1818, Frémont's father died in Norfolk, Virginia, leaving Anne a widow to take care of John and several young children alone on a limited inherited income.

[5] Anne and her family moved to Charleston, South Carolina. Frémont, knowing his origins and coming from relatively modest means, grew up a proud, reserved, restless loner who although self-disciplined, was ready to prove himself and unwilling to play by the rules. [10] The young Frémont was considered to be "precious, handsome, and daring, " having the ability of obtaining protectors. [5] A lawyer, John W.

Mitchell, provided for Frémont's early education whereupon Frémont in May 1829 entered Charleston College, teaching at intervals in the countryside, but was expelled for irregular attendance in 1831. Frémont, however, had been grounded in mathematics and natural sciences. Frémont attracted the attention of eminent South Carolina politician Joel R. Poinsett, an Andrew Jackson supporter, who secured Frémont an appointment as a teacher of mathematics aboard the sloop USS Natchez, sailing the South American seas in 1833. [11] Frémont resigned from the navy and was appointed second lieutenant in the U.

Topographical Corps, surveying a route for the Charleston, Louisville, and Cincinnati railroad. [12][verification needed] Working in the Carolina mountains, Frémont desired to become an explorer. [5] Between 1837 and 1838, Frémont's desire for exploration increased while in Georgia on reconnaissance to prepare for the removal of Cherokee Indians. [5] When Poinsett became Secretary of War, he arranged for Frémont to assist French explorer and scientist Joseph Nicollet in exploring the lands between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers.

[11][verification needed] Frémont became a first rate topographer, trained in astronomy, and geology, describing fauna, flora, soil, and water resources. [13][verification needed] Gaining valuable western frontier experience Frémont met Henry Sibley, Joseph Renville, J. Faribault, Étienne Provost, and the Sioux nation.

Senator, Missouri, was Frémont's powerful backer in the Senate. Jessie Benton Frémont in 1876. Frémont's exploration work with Nicollet brought him in contact with Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri, powerful chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs. [11] Benton invited Frémont to his Washington home where he met Benton's 16-year-old daughter Jessie Benton.

[11] A romance blossomed between the two; however, Benton was initially against it because Frémont was not considered upper society. [11] In 1841, Frémont (age 28) and Jessie eloped and were married by a Catholic priest. [11][15] Initially Benton was furious at their marriage, but in time, because he loved his daughter, he accepted their marriage and became Frémont's patron. [11] Benton, Democratic Party leader for more than 30 years in the Senate, championed the expansionist movement, a political cause that became known as Manifest Destiny. [11] The expansionists believed that the North American continent, from one end to the other, north and south, east and west, should belong to the citizens of the U. They believed it was the nation's destiny to control the continent. This movement became a crusade for politicians such as Benton and his new son-in-law. Benton pushed appropriations through Congress for national surveys of the Oregon Trail, the Oregon Country, the Great Basin, and Sierra Nevada Mountains to California. Through his power and influence, Senator Benton obtained for Frémont the leadership, funding, and patronage of three expeditions.

See also: Westward Expansion Trails and Manifest Destiny. By George Healy unknown date.

President Thomas Jefferson had envisioned a Western empire, and also sent the Pike Expedition under Zebulon Pike to explore the southwest. [16] American and European fur trappers, including Peter Skene Ogden and Jedediah Smith, explored much of the American West in the 1820s.

[17][18][19][b] Frémont, who would later be known as The Pathfinder, carried on this tradition of Western overland exploration, building on and adding to the work of earlier pathfinders to expand knowledge of the American West. [20] Frémont's talent lay in his scientific documentation, publications, and maps made based on his expeditions, making the American West accessible for many Americans. [20] Beginning in 1842, Frémont led five western expeditions, however, between the third and fourth expeditions, Frémont's career took a fateful turn because of the Mexican-American War. Frémont's initial explorations, his timely scientific reports, co-authored by his wife Jessie, and their romantic writing style, encouraged Americans to travel West. [21] A series of seven maps produced from his findings, published by the Senate in 1846, served as a guide for thousands of American emigrants, depicting the entire length of the Oregon Trail.

And Kit Carson, Frémont's expeditions guide. When Nicollet was too ill to continue any further explorations, Frémont was chosen to be his successor.

[14] His first important expedition was planned by Benton, Senator Lewis Linn, and other Westerners interested in acquiring the Oregon Territory. [14] The scientific expedition started in the summer of 1842 and was to explore the Wind River of the Rocky Mountains, examine the Oregon Trail through the South Pass, and report on the rivers and the fertility of the lands, find optimal sites for forts, and describe the mountains beyond in Wyoming. [14] By chance meeting, Frémont was able to gain the valuable assistance of mountain man and guide Kit Carson. [14] Frémont and his party of 25 men, including Carson, embarked from the Kansas River on June 15, 1842, following the Platte River to the South Pass, and starting from Green River he explored the Wind River Range.

[14] Frémont climbed a 13,745-foot mountain (4,189 m), Frémont's Peak, planted an American flag, claiming the Rocky Mountains and the West for the United States. [14] On Frémont's return trip he and his party carelessly rafted the swollen Platte River losing much of his equipment. [14] His five-month exploration, however, was a success, returning to Washington in October. [14] Frémont and his wife Jessie wrote a Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains (1843), which was printed in newspapers across the country; the public embraced his vision of the west not as a place of danger but wide open and inviting lands to be settled.

Further information: Oregon Trail, Mexican California, Oregon Country, and Treaty of 1818. Frémont's successful first expedition led quickly to a second; it began in the summer of 1843. [14] The more ambitious goal this time was to map and describe the second half of the Oregon Trail, find an alternate route to the South Pass, and push westward toward the Pacific Ocean on the Columbia River in Oregon Country. [14] Frémont and his almost 40 well-equipped men left the Missouri River in May after he controversially obtained a 12-pound howitzer cannon in St. [14] Frémont invited Carson on the second expedition, due to his proven skills, and he joined Frémont's party on the Arkansas River.

[14] Unable to find a new route through Colorado to the South Pass, Frémont took to the regular Oregon Trail, passing the main body of the great immigration of 1843. [14] His party stopped to explore the northern part of the Great Salt Lake, then traveling by way Fort Hall and Fort Boise to Marcus Whitman's mission, along the Snake River to the Columbia River and in to Oregon. [14] Frémont's endurance, energy, and resourcefulness over the long journey was remarkable. [14] Traveling west along the Columbia, they came within sight of the Cascade Range peaks and mapped Mount St.

Reaching the Dalles on November 5, Frémont left his party and traveled to the British-held Fort Vancouver for supplies. Frémont's second expedition party reached Sutter's Fort in the Sacramento Valley in March 1844. Rather than turning around and heading back to St. Louis, Frémont resolved to explore the Great Basin between the Rockies and the Sierras and fulfill Benton's dream of acquiring the West for the United States.

[23] Frémont and his party turned south along the eastern flank of the Cascades through the Oregon territory to Pyramid Lake, which he named. [23] Looping back to the east to stay on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, they turned south again as far as present-day Minden, Nevada, reaching the Carson River on January 18, 1844. [23] From an area near what later became Virginia City, Frémont turned west into the cold and snowy Sierra Nevada, becoming one of the first Americans to see Lake Tahoe. [23] Carson successfully led Frémont's party through a new pass over the high Sierras, which Frémont named Carson Pass in his honor.

Frémont and his party then descended the American River valley to Sutter's Fort (Spanish: Nueva Helvetia) at present-day Sacramento, California, in early March. [23] Captain John Sutter, a Swiss-Mexican (and later American by treaty) immigrant and founder of the fort, received Frémont gladly and refitted his expedition party.

[23] While at Sutter's Fort, Frémont talked to American settlers, who were growing numerous, and found that Mexican authority over California was very weak. Leaving Sutter's Fort, Frémont and his men headed south following Smith's trail on the eastern edge of the San Joaquin Valley until he struck the "Spanish Trail" between Los Angeles and Santa Fe, and headed east through Tehachapi Pass and present-day Las Vegas before regaining Smith's trail north through Utah and back to South Pass. [23] Exploring the Great Basin, Frémont verified that all the land (centered on modern-day Nevada between Reno and Salt Lake City) was endorheic, without any outlet rivers flowing towards the sea. The finding contributed greatly to a better understanding of North American geography, and disproved a longstanding legend of a "Buenaventura River" that flowed out the Great Basin across the Sierra Nevada. After exploring Utah Lake, Frémont traveled by way of the Pueblo until he reached Bent's Fort on the Arkansas River. [23] In August 1844, Frémont and his party finally arrived back in St. Louis, enthusiastically received by the people, ending the journey that lasted over one year. [23] Senator Buchanan ordered the printing of 10,000 copies to be used by settlers and fervor the popular movement of national expansion. With the backdrop of an impending war with Mexico, after James K.

Polk had been elected president, Benton quickly organized a third expedition for Frémont. [23] The plan for Frémont under the War Department was to survey the central Rockies, the Great Salt Lake region, and part of the Sierra Nevada. Louis, Frémont organized an armed surveying expedition of 60 men, with Carson as a guide, and two distinguished scouts, Joseph Walker and Alexis Godey. [23] Working with Benton and Secretary of Navy George Bancroft, Frémont was secretly told that if war started with Mexico he was to turn his scientific expedition into a military force. [23] President Polk, who had met with Frémont at a cabinet meeting, was set on taking California.

[27] Frémont desired to conquer California for its beauty and wealth, and would later explain his very controversial conduct there. On June 1, 1845, Frémont and his armed expedition party left St. Louis having the immediate goal to locate the source of the Arkansas River, on the east side of the Rocky Mountains. [28][23] Frémont and his party struck west by way of Bent's Fort, The Great Salt Lake, and the "Hastings Cut-Off". [23] When Frémont reached the Ogden River, which he renamed the Humboldt, he divided his party in two to double his geographic information. [23] Upon reaching the Arkansas River, Frémont suddenly made a blazing trail through Nevada straight to California, having a rendezvous with his men from the split party at Walker Lake in west-central Nevada. Taking 16 men, Frémont split his party again, arriving at Sutter's Fort in the Sacramento Valley on December 9. [29] Frémont promptly sought to stir up patriotic enthusiasm among the American settlers there. He promised that if war with Mexico started, his military force would protect the settlers. [31] Frémont went to Monterey, California, to talk with the American consul, Thomas O. Larkin, and Mexican commandant Jose Castro, under the pretext of gaining fuller supplies. [23] In February 1846, Frémont reunited with 45 men of his expedition party near Mission San José, giving the United States a relatively strong military presence in California.

[32] Castro and Mexican officials were suspicious of Frémont and he was ordered to leave the country. [33][23] Frémont and his men withdrew and camped near the summit of what is now named Fremont Peak. Frémont raised the United States Flag in defiance of Mexican authority. After a four-day standoff and Castro having a superior number of Mexican troops, Frémont and his men went north to Oregon, bringing about the Sacramento River massacre along the way. Estimates of the casualties vary.

Martin claim the number of Native Americans killed as "120-150"[34] and "over 175"[35] respectively, but the eyewitness Tustin claimed that at least 600-700 Native Americans were killed on land, with another 200 or more dying in the water. [36] There are no records of any expedition members being killed or even wounded in the massacre.

[37] Kit Carson, one of the mounted attackers, later stated, It was a perfect butchery. Fremont and his men eventually made their way to camp at Klamath Lake, [39][40][23] killing Native Americans on sight as they went. [41][42] On May 8, Frémont was overtaken by Lieutenant Archibald Gillespie from Washington, who gave him copies of dispatches he had previously given to Larkin. [23] Gillespie told Frémont secret instructions from Benton and Buchanan justifying aggressive action and that a declaration of war with Mexico was imminent.

[23] On May 9, 1846, Native Americans ambushed his expedition party in retaliation for[citation needed] numerous killings of Native Americans that Frémont's men had engaged in along the trail, killing three members of Frémont's party in their sleep, including a Native American who was traveling with Frémont. Frémont retaliated by attacking a Klamath fishing village named Dokdokwas the following day in the Klamath Lake massacre, although the people living there might not have been involved in the first action.

[43] The village was at the junction of the Williamson River and Klamath Lake. On May 12, 1846, the Frémont group completely destroyed it, killing at least fourteen people. [44] Frémont believed that the British were responsible for arming and encouraging the Native Americans to attack his party. [45] Afterward, Carson was nearly killed by a Klamath warrior. As Carson's gun misfired, the warrior drew to shoot a poison arrow; however, Frémont, seeing that Carson was in danger, trampled the warrior with his horse. Carson felt that he owed Frémont his life.

Further information: California Republic, Conquest of California, and Mexican-American War. Having reentered Mexican California headed south, Frémont and his army expedition stopped off at Peter Lassen's Ranch on May 24, 1846.

[47] Frémont learned from Lassen that the USS Portsmouth, commanded by John B. Montgomery, was anchored at Sausalito. Gillespie to Montgomery and requested supplies including 8000 percussion caps, 300 pounds of rifle lead, one keg of powder, and food provisions, intending to head back to St. [47] On May 31, Frémont made his camp on the Bear and Feather rivers 60 miles north of Sutter's Fort, where American immigrants ready for revolt against Mexican authority joined his party.

[48] From there he made another attack on local Native Americans in a rancheria (see Sutter Buttes massacre). [49] In early June, believing war with Mexico to be a virtual certainty, Frémont joined the Sacramento Valley insurgents in a "silent partnership", rather than head back to St.

[52] According to historian H. Bancroft, Frémont incited the American settlers indirectly and "guardedly" to revolt.

On June 14, 34 armed rebels independently captured Sonoma, the largest settlement in northern California, and forced the surrender of Colonel Mariano Vallejo, taking him and three others prisoner. [53] The following day, the rebelling Americans, who were called Osos (Spanish for "bears") by the residents of Sonoma, amidst a brandy-filled party, hoisted a roughly sewn flag and formed the Bear Flag Republic, electing William Ide as their leader.

[54] The four prisoners were then taken to Frémont's camp 80 miles away. [55] On June 15, the prisoners and escorts arrived at Frémont's new camp on the American River, but Frémont publicly denied responsibility for the raid. [56] The escorts then removed the prisoners south to Sutter's Fort, where they were imprisoned by Sutter under Frémont's orders. [57] It was at this time Frémont began signing letters as Military Commander of U.

On June 24, Frémont and his men, upon hearing that Californio (people of Spanish or Mexican descent) Juan N. Padilla had captured, tortured, killed, and mutilated the bodies of two Osos and held others prisoner, rode to Sonoma, arriving on June 25. [58] On June 26, Frémont, his own men, Lieutenant Henry Ford and a detachment of Osos, totaling 125 men, rode south to San Rafael, searching for Captain Joaquin de la Torre and his lancers, rumored to have been ordered by Castro to attack Sonoma, but was unable to find them.

[59] On June 28, General Castro, on the other side of San Francisco Bay, sent a row boat across to Point San Pablo on the shores of San Rafael with a message for de la Torre. Kit Carson, Granville Swift and Sam Neal rode to the beach to intercept the three unarmed men who came ashore, including Don José Berreyesa and the 20-year-old de Haro twin brothers Ramon and Francisco, sons of Don Francisco de Haro.

[60] The three were murdered in cold blood. Exactly who committed the murders is a point of controversy, but later accounts point to Carson acting at the behest, if not the order, of Frémont.

John Sloat captures Monterey on July 7, 1846. On July 1, Commodore John D. Navy's Pacific Squadron, sailed into Monterey harbor with orders to seize San Francisco Bay and blockade the other California ports upon learning "without a doubt" that war had been declared. [62] On July 5, Sloat received a message from Montgomery reporting the events in Sonoma and Frémont's involvement. [63] Believing Frémont to be acting on orders from Washington, Sloat began to carry out his orders.

[63] Early on July 7, 225 sailors and marines on the United States Navy frigate USS Savannah and the two sloops, USS Cyane and USS Levant landed and captured Monterey with no shots being fired and raised the flag of the United States. [64] Commodore Sloat had his proclamation read and posted in English and Spanish:... Henceforth California would be a portion of the United States. [65] On July 10, Frémont received a message from Montgomery that the U. Navy had occupied Monterey and Yerba Buena.

[66] Two days later, Frémont received a letter from Sloat, describing the capture of Monterey and ordering Frémont to bring at least 100 armed men to Monterey. Frémont would bring 160 men. [67] On July 15, Commodore Robert F.

Stockton arrived in Monterey to replace the 65-year-old Sloat in command of the Pacific Squadron. Sloat named Stockton commander-in-chief of all land forces in California. [68] On July 19, Frémont's party entered Monterey, where he met with Sloat on board the Savannah. When Sloat learned that Frémont had acted on his own authority (thus raising doubt about a war declaration), he retired to his cabin. [69] On July 23, Stockton mustered Frémont's party and the former Bear Flaggers into military service as the "Naval Battalion of Mounted Volunteer Riflemen" with Frémont appointed major in command of the California Battalion, [70][71][72] which he had helped form with his survey crew and volunteers from the Bear Flag Republic, now totaling 428 men. [73][74][g] Stockton incorporated the California Battalion into the U. Military giving them soldiers pay. [23] Frémont afterwards went north to recruit more Californians into his battalion. [23] In late 1846, under orders from Stockton, Frémont led a military expedition of 300 men to capture Santa Barbara.

In September, Mexican Californians unwilling to be ruled by the United States, under José María Flores, fought back and retook Los Angeles, driving out Americans. Kearny arrived in California under "orders from President Polk" after taking New Mexico, then to march onto "California where, "Should you conquer and take possession of California, you will establish a civil government. [76] Kearny, who had earlier trimmed his forces from 300 to 100 dragoons, based upon Kit Carson's dispatches he was carrying to Washington, stating that Stockton and Fremont had successfully taken control of California. [77] Unknown to Carson at this time, the Californians had revolted, which would lead Kearny to a disastrous attack on waiting Mexican lancers at the Battle of San Pasqual, losing 19 men killed and being himself seriously lanced. He was later reinforced when Stockton sent troops to drive off Pio Pico and his forces.

[23] It was at this time a dispute began between Stockton and Kearny over who had control of the military, but the two managed to work together to stop the Los Angeles uprising. Frémont led his unit over the Santa Ynez Mountains at San Marcos Pass in a rainstorm on the night of December 24, 1846. Despite losing many of his horses, mules and cannons, which slid down the muddy slopes during the rainy night, his men regrouped in the foothills (behind what is today Rancho Del Ciervo) the next morning, and captured the Presidio of Santa Barbara and the town without bloodshed. A few days later, Frémont led his men southeast towards Los Angeles. Fremont accepted Andres Pico's surrender upon signing the Treaty of Cahuenga on January 13, 1847, which terminated the war in upper California.

[78] It was at this time Kearny ordered Frémont to join his military dragoons, but Frémont refused, believing he was under authority of Stockton. Kearny humiliated Frémont by having him arrested and court-martialed.

On January 16, 1847, Commodore Stockton appointed Frémont military governor of California following the Treaty of Cahuenga, and then left Los Angeles. [80] Previously, unknown to Stockton and Frémont, the Navy Department had sent orders for Sloat and his successors to establish military rule over California. [80][81] These orders, however, postdated Kearny's orders to establish military control over California. Kearny did not have the troop strength to enforce those orders, and was forced to rely on Stockton's Marines and Frémont's California Battalion until army reinforcements arrived.

[80] On February 13, specific orders were sent from Washington through Commanding General Winfield Scott giving Kearny the authority to be military governor of California. [80] Kearny, however, did not directly inform Frémont of these orders from Scott. [80] Kearny ordered that Frémont's California Battalion be enlisted into the U. Army and Frémont bring his battalion archives to Kearny's headquarters in Monterey. Frémont delayed obeying these orders, hoping Washington would send instructions for Frémont to be military governor.

[80] Also, the California Battalion refused to join the U. [80] Frémont gave orders for the California Battalion not to surrender arms, rode to Monterey to talk to Kearny, and told Kearny he would obey orders.

Mason, who was to succeed Kearny as military governor of California, to Los Angeles, both to inspect troops and to give Frémont further orders. [82] Frémont and Mason, however, were at odds with each other and Frémont challenged Mason to a duel.

[82] After an arrangement to postpone the duel, Kearny rode to Los Angeles and refused Frémont's request to join troops in Mexico. [82] Ordered to march with Kearny's army back east, Frémont was arrested on August 22, 1847, when they arrived at Fort Leavenworth. He was charged with mutiny, disobedience of orders, assumption of powers, and several other military offenses. Ordered by Kearny to report to the adjutant general in Washington to stand for court-martial, Frémont was found innocent of mutiny, but was convicted on January 31, 1848, of disobedience toward a superior officer and military misconduct. While approving the court's decision, President James K.

Polk quickly commuted Frémont's sentence of dishonorable discharge and reinstated him into the Army, due to his war services. Polk felt that Frémont was guilty of disobeying orders and misconduct, but he did not believe Frémont was guilty of mutiny. [84] Additionally, Polk wished to placate Thomas Hart Benton, a powerful senator and Frémont's father-in-law, who felt that Frémont was innocent. Frémont, only gaining a partial pardon from Polk, resigned his commission in protest and settled in California. [85] Despite the court-martial, Frémont remained popular among the American public.

Historians are divided in their opinions on this period of Frémont's career. And even a cursory investigation of the court-martial record produces one undeniable conclusion: neither side in the controversy acquitted itself with distinction. [86] Allan Nevins states that Kearny. Was a stern-tempered soldier who made few friends and many enemies - who has been justly characterized by the most careful historian of the period, Justin H.

Smith, as grasping, jealous, domineering, and harsh. Possessing these traits, feeling his pride stung by his defeat at San Pasqual, and anxious to assert his authority, he was no sooner in Los Angeles than he quarreled bitterly with Stockton; and Frémont was not only at once involved in this quarrel, but inherited the whole burden of it as soon as Stockton left the country. Theodore Grivas wrote that "It does not seem quite clear how Frémont, an army officer, could have imagined that a naval officer [Stockton] could have protected him from a charge of insubordination toward his superior officer [Kearny]". Grivas goes on to say, however, that This conflict between Kearny, Stockton, and Frémont perhaps could have been averted had methods of communication been what they are today.

Intent on restoring his honor and explorer reputation after his court martial, in 1848, Frémont and his father-in-law Sen. Benton developed a plan to advance their vision of Manifest Destiny.

With a keen interest in the potential of railroads, Sen. Benton had sought support from the Senate for a railroad connecting St.

Louis to San Francisco along the 38th parallel, the latitude which both cities approximately share. After Benton failed to secure federal funding, Frémont secured private funding. In October 1848 he embarked with 35 men up the Missouri, Kansas and Arkansas rivers to explore the terrain. The artists and brothers Edward Kern and Richard Kern, and their brother Benjamin Kern, were part of the expedition, but Frémont was unable to obtain the valued service of Kit Carson as guide as in his previous expeditions.

On his party's reaching Bent's Fort, he was strongly advised by most of the trappers against continuing the journey. Already a foot of snow was on the ground at Bent's Fort, and the winter in the mountains promised to be especially snowy. Part of Frémont's purpose was to demonstrate that a 38th parallel railroad would be practical year-round. At Bent's Fort, he engaged "Uncle Dick" Wootton as guide, and at what is now Pueblo, Colorado, he hired the eccentric Old Bill Williams and moved on. Had Frémont continued up the Arkansas, he might have succeeded. On November 25 at what is now Florence, Colorado, he turned sharply south. By the time his party crossed the Sangre de Cristo Range via Mosca Pass, they had already experienced days of bitter cold, blinding snow and difficult travel.

Some of the party, including the guide Wootton, had already turned back, concluding that further travel would be impossible. Benjamin Kern and "Old Bill" Williams were killed by Ute warriors while retracing the expedition trail to look for gear and survivors. Although the passes through the Sangre de Cristo had proven too steep for a railroad, Frémont pressed on. From this point the party might still have succeeded had they gone up the Rio Grande to its source, or gone by a more northerly route, but the route they took brought them to the very top of Mesa Mountain. [91] By December 12, on Boot Mountain, it took ninety minutes to progress three hundred yards.

Mules began dying and by December 20, only 59 animals remained alive. It was not until December 22 that Frémont acknowledged that the party needed to regroup and be resupplied. They began to make their way to Taos in the New Mexico Territory. By the time the last surviving member of the expedition made it to Taos on February 12, 1849, 10 of the party had died and been eaten by the survivors. [92] Except for the efforts of member Alexis Godey, [93] another 15 would have been lost.

[94] After recuperating in Taos, Frémont and only a few of the men left for California via an established southern trade route. Edward and Richard Kern joined J. Simpson's military reconnaissance expedition to the Navajos in 1849, and gave the American public some of its earliest authentic graphic images of the people and landscape of Arizona, New Mexico, and southern Colorado; with views of Canyon de Chelly, Chaco Canyon, and El Morro (Inscription Rock).

In 1850, Frémont was awarded the Patron's Medal by the Royal Geographical Society for his various exploratory efforts.